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- Jonathan Gold 喬納森 (PrincetonU 美國普林斯頓大學): Nonviolence as Quintessential Buddhist Political Doctrine | 作為佛教根本性政治理論的非暴力原則
Nonviolence is adopted as a personal and political practice by advocates of many different systems of religious and secular thought. It finds its natural home in Buddhism as an expression of the First Precept or as a sibling of compassion and generosity. As a psychological approach to ideas and concepts, it is the other-directed, flip side of the project of overcoming attachment to one’s own views. To the extent that nonviolence takes in the big picture, seeking to replace short-term victories with actions that might bring an end to cycles of conflict, it resembles a Buddhist approach to dependent origination. This paper explores these Buddhist resonances within the conceptual basis of modern political nonviolence, and argues that some of its main advocates—Tolstoy, Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.—inadvertently rediscovered some well-known Buddhist principles. Tolstoy’s famous argument against free will in the Second Epilogue to War and Peace resembles a nascent theory of social karma. Gandhi’s ahimsa purports to be a Hindu principle, but it is centrally an expression of the yogic hero’s virtue of heedfulness (apramāda), which greatly impressed Gandhi in the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gīta, and which he would have encountered in the Buddha’s biography. King emphasized that nonviolence is not merely a refusal of violence, but an acceptance of the present opponent as a rightful member of a future “beloved community.” This refusal of the construction of the “other” and commitment to transforming our “inescapable network of mutuality” is very close to the heart of the bodhisattva path.
許多不同宗教和世俗思想體系的倡導者都將非暴力作為一種個人和政治實踐。在佛教中，非暴力是第一大戒的一種表現形式，也是慈悲和慷慨的同胞。作為對思想和概念的一種心理學方法，非暴力是克服對自身觀點的執著的反面。非暴力著眼於全局，採取行動以取代短期的勝利，從而結束衝突的惡性循環，這與佛教的依他起性相似。本文探討了現代政治非暴力概念基礎中佛教的共鳴，並認為其主要倡導者——托爾斯泰、甘地、和馬丁・路德・金——無意中重新發現了一些眾所周知的佛教原理。托爾斯泰在《戰爭與和平》後記中反對自由意志的著名論點，類似於一種新生的社會因果報應理論。甘地的 “無我”（ahimsa）自稱是印度教的原則，但其核心是瑜伽英雄們的 “不放逸”（apramāda）美德的表達，《薄伽梵歌》的哲學思想給甘地留下了深刻印象，他在佛陀的傳記中也會遇到這種美德。金強調，非暴力不僅僅是拒絕暴力，而是接受現在的對手為未來 “親愛的社區 “的合法成員。這種拒絕構建 “他者 “並致力於改變我們的 “不可避免的相互性網絡 “的做法非常接近菩薩道的核心。
- GONG Jun 龔雋 (Sun Yat-senU 中山大學): 近代中國人間佛教與社會政治論述：以太虛為中心 | Human Buddhism and Socio-Political Discourse in Modern China: Centering on Taixu
本文主要把太虛有關佛教與政治之間關係的論述放置在近代中國社會「現代性（modernity）」的語境里加以探究。文章將根據《太虛全書》以及近來發現的有關太虛檔案等新資料，重新討論太虛有關佛教與政治關係議題的變化及其內涵。同時，本文也將討論歐陽竟無為代表的內學院從佛教經學立場對太虛社會政治觀念所進行的批判，以探析近代中國佛教思想史上有關政治論述的複雜性。
This paper mainly explores Taixu’s discussion on the relationship between Buddhism and politics in the context of “modernity” in modern Chinese society. Based on the Taixu Complete Book and the newly discovered archives of Taixu, this paper will re-discuss the changes and connotations of Taixu’s issues concerning the relationship between Buddhism and politics. At the same time, this paper will also discuss Ouyang Jingwu represented by the Inner College from the standpoint of Buddhist scripture to Taixu social and political ideas of criticism, in order to explore the modern history of Chinese Buddhist thought about the complexity of political discourse.
- Esther-Maria GUGGENMOS 谷乃曦 (LundU 瑞典隆德大學): Engaged Buddhism and Life Education: A fruitful encounter? | 參與佛教與生命教育：一個富有成效的邂逅？
Life Education as a subject and field of knowledge is thriving across East and South East Asia. Emerging over the past twenty years, it appears in the educational sector as a reflection on pedagogical objectives, at school level, it includes various forms of activities including classes on the subject, but also universities build research centers and offer education in Life Education. Its discussions address central issues of life orientation and includes questions of a philosophical and religious character, but also matters of health, career, and other related fields. Engaged Buddhist communities actively participate in the emergence of Life Education and the paper explores the ongoing efforts.
在東亞和東南亞生命教育作為一個知識領域和學科蓬勃發展。生命教育出現於過去的二十年中，它在教育領域中表現為對教學目標的反思，在學校層面，它包括各種形式的活動，例如生命教育主題的課程，以及大學設立研究中心並提供關於生命教育的教育等。生命教育討論關於生命導向的核心話題，包括哲學宗教性質的問題以及健康、職業和其他相關領域。參與佛教的團體積極參與了生命教育的興起。本文即討論參與佛教在生命教育中正在開展的活動。
- HE Jianming 何建明 (RenminU of China 中國人民大學): 人間佛教與中國佛教的現代形態 | Humanistic Buddhism and Modernity of Chinese Buddhism
人間佛教是1912年中華民國成立後由太虛大師發起和引領的中國佛教現代化運動，在教理、教制和社會事業等諸多方面都一改此前中國佛教的明清傳統，從太虛大師提倡”人成即佛成” 和”建立人間淨土”, 到星雲大師”四給”、從趙樸初”莊嚴國土，利樂有情”，再到淨慧長老的”覺悟人生，奉獻人生“，海峽兩岸佛教雖然有現實背景上的不同，但都表現出鮮明的契理契機的現時代特色。近百年的人間佛教運動與中國佛教的現代形態之形成構成了同一歷史過程的不同現實面向。一方面，人間佛教運動促使中國佛教不斷走向現代形態；另一方面，多面向的佛教現代化探索使人間佛教運動不僅成為主體，更成為現代佛教的引領者。中國佛教的現代形態之形成，在佛教現代化和國際化方面都與人間佛教運動緊密相聯，相互促進。中國佛教的現代形態之形成，表現在歷史形態、社會形態和文化形態上，既是對明清傳統的革新，也是對中華傳統的弘揚，還是對佛陀傳統的回歸，更鮮明地體現出對現代文明的調適。不過，這種調適由於海峽兩岸的社會發展差異而呈現出明顯的形態上的差異。
Humanistic Buddhism is a movement of modernization of Chinese Buddhism initiated and led by Venerable Taishu after the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) in 1912. In many aspects, such as doctrines, teaching systems and social affairs, it has changed from the previous Chinese Buddhist traditions of the Ming and Qing dynasties, from Venerable Taishu’s advocating that ” human establishment is Buddha’s establishment” and “the establishment of a Pure Land of Humanity,” to Venerable Xingyun’s “Four Gives,” to Venerable Zhao Puchu’s “Beautifying the land and benefiting the sentient beings,” to Venerable Jinghui’s “life of enlightenment and life of dedication,” cross-Straits Buddhism, though different in their realistic backgrounds, has shown distinctive characteristics of the present generation that match the reasoning and opportunities. The humanistic Buddhist movement and the formation of the modern form of Chinese Buddhism in the past hundred years constitute different realistic aspects of the same historical process. On the one hand, the Humanistic Buddhist movement has pushed Chinese Buddhism to move towards a modern form, and on the other hand, the multi-faceted exploration of the modernization of Buddhism has made the Humanistic Buddhist movement not only the main body, but also the leader of modern Buddhism. The formation of the modern form of Chinese Buddhism is closely related to the Humanistic Buddhist Movement in terms of modernization and internationalization of Buddhism, and they promote each other. The formation of the modern form of Chinese Buddhism is manifested in its historical, social and cultural forms, which are not only a renewal of the Ming and Qing traditions, but also a promotion of the Chinese traditions, a return to the Buddha’s traditions, and a clear manifestation of the adaptation to modern civilization. However, this adaptation shows obvious morphological differences due to the differences in social development between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait.
- HE Songwei 何松蔚 (Southwest PetroleumU 西南石油大學): 日據時期兩岸文化交流——以台僧赴閩院求學為例 | Cultural Exchange between Taiwan and Fujian during the Japanese Occupation Period in Taiwan: A Case Study of Taiwanese Monks Studying in Minnan Buddhist Institute
日據時期，台灣佛教並未中止與福建佛教之間的交流。閩南佛學院於1925年在廈門成立後，吸納了不少台灣學僧。閩台佛教關係原本系之於以祖庭、師徒關係等為核心的「法緣」，又補充以「學緣」。閩台佛教交流在日據時期的延續並不表現為對日本殖民政府的直接反抗，同時也並非來自日本政府的授意，而是處於兩者之間。
During the Japanese occupation of Taiwan, the exchange between Taiwanese and Fujianese Buddhism remained uninterrupted. Following its establishment in Xiamen in 1925, the Minnan Buddhist Institute (閩南佛學院) attracted numerous young Taiwanese Buddhist monks seeking to pursue their studies. Initially centered around ancestral temples and the mentor-disciple relationship, the interactions between Taiwanese and Fujianese Buddhism were further enriched by scholarly connections. This exchange during the Japanese occupation period neither directly resisted the Japanese colonial government, nor was it prompted by the Japanese government; instead, it existed independently between the two.
- HE Yansheng 何燕生 (Koriyama Women’s U 郡山女子大學/KyotoU 京都大學): 日本學者視野中的印順法師《中國禪宗史》 | Ven. Yin Shun’s “History of Chinese Ch’an Buddhism” in the Perspective of Japanese Scholars
印順法師是一位偉大的佛教思想家，傑出的佛教高僧，他在佛教學術研究上所取得的巨大成就，為世人所矚目。以往關於印順法師的研究，大多集中在「人間佛教思想」的闡述和弘揚方面，而關於法師在佛教學術研究方面所做出的貢獻的論述，似乎並不多見。然而，當我們閱讀以《妙雲集》為首的印順法師的著作，不難發現，讓人感受最深的應該是法師那充滿智慧的學問；印順法師在佛教學術研究方面的重要貢獻，需要我們進行認真地探索和深入地發現。筆者認為，如果說「人間佛教思想」是當代海峽兩岸漢語佛教界為了調適佛教與「現代性」的困境，由佛教內部「發現」出來的一種頗富社會實踐意涵的佛教思想，而印順法師以《中國禪宗史》為主要內容的禪宗研究，可以說是在二十世紀初因敦煌禪宗文獻的發現所帶來的國際禪學界盛行一時的「初期禪宗史研究」這一學術潮流中「被發現」出來的「學術」，它在整個禪宗研究領域中佔有重要地位。1973年，印順法師《中國禪宗史》獲得日本大正大學授予的「文學博士」學位，是日本學者「發現」印順法師禪宗研究之開端。90年代，印順法師的《中國禪宗史》被譯成日文，在日本出版，其中的許多觀點常被一些精英學者引用和研究，這是中國禪宗研究在日本經過了約30年的學術沈澱之後，又一次對印順法師《中國禪宗史》的「發現」，當然是一次「再發現」，它反映了近三十年來日本在中國禪宗研究過程中所面臨的諸多課題，蘊藏著重要的學術脈絡，同時也反映了印順法師的《中國禪宗史》在近年來的日本學術界已開始從當初的「被發現」進入到「被研究」的階段了。本文擬透過日本學者的研究，對印順法師關於禪宗研究方面的貢獻進行探討，其中特別探討法師的代表作《中國禪宗史》在以日本為中心的二十世紀「初期禪宗史研究」的學術潮流中的位置。
Ven. Yin Shun was a great Buddhist thinker and outstanding monk who achieved remarkable success in Buddhist academic research, which attracted the attention of the world. Previous studies on Ven. Yin Shun mainly focused on the exposition and promotion of “humanistic Buddhist thought,” but there seem to be few discussions about his contributions to Buddhist academic research. However, when we read Ven. Yin Shun’s works, especially “The Essentials of Buddhist Meditation,” it is not difficult to feel his profound wisdom. Ven. Yin Shun’s significant contributions to Buddhist academic research require us to explore and discover carefully. I believe that if “humanistic Buddhist thought” is a kind of Buddhist thought with significant social practice implications discovered by the Chinese Buddhist community on both sides of the Taiwan Strait to reconcile Buddhism with “modernity,” Ven. Yin Shun’s Chan Buddhism research, which is mainly focused on “A History of Chinese Chan Buddhism,” can be said to be “discovered” as “academic” in the academic trend of “early Chan Buddhist history research,” which prevailed in the international Chan Buddhist community in the early 20th century due to the discovery of Chan Buddhist literature in Dunhuang. It occupies an important position in the entire field of Chan Buddhism research.In 1973, Ven. Yin Shun’s “A History of Chinese Chan Buddhism” was awarded a doctoral degree in literature by Taisho University in Japan, which marked the beginning of Japanese scholars “discovering” Ven. Yin Shun’s Chan Buddhism research. In the 1990s, Ven. Yin Shun’s “A History of Chinese Chan Buddhism” was translated into Japanese and published in Japan. Many of its viewpoints are frequently cited and studied by some elite scholars. This is a “rediscovery” of Ven. Yin Shun’s “A History of Chinese Chan Buddhism” after about 30 years of academic precipitation of Chan Buddhism research in Japan, which reflects many issues that Japan has faced in the process of researching Chan Buddhism in China over the past 30 years, containing important academic veins. It also reflects that Ven. Yin Shun’s “A History of Chinese Chan Buddhism” has entered the stage of “being studied” in the Japanese academic community in recent years after being “discovered” initially.This article intends to explore Ven. Yin Shun’s contributions to Chan Buddhism research through the studies of Japanese scholars, especially the position of his representative work “A History of Chinese Chan Buddhism” in the academic trend of “early Chan Buddhist history research” centered on Japan in the 20th century.
- JI Zhe 汲喆 (Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales [Inalco] 法國國立東方語言與文明學院): 入世佛教的跨文化傳播：梅村的策略 | Trans-Cultural Diffusion of Engaged Buddhism: The Strategies of Plum Village
越南的一行禪師在1980年代移居法國並在法國南部建立了禪修中心梅村，自此，其以“入世佛教”為旗幟的現代主義運動便面臨著如何在異文化的環境中生存和發展的挑戰。以梅村為例，本文考察了在跨文化背景下的佛教弘法事業所要處理的三個主要問題。一是表述問題，即如何向當代西方人闡明佛教的基本觀念與要求。二是組織問題，即如何有效地完成信眾動員、組織集體活動，並建設可持續的僧團。三是修行問題，即如何設計與傳授適應當代西方人需要的且便於操作的解脫技術。在這三個方面，一行禪師都進行了極具創造性的實踐，從而開創了當代佛教跨國傳播的一種獨特典範。
Ever since Thích Nhất Hạnh moved to France and established Plum Village in the 1980s, his modernist movement under the banner of “Engaged Buddhism” has been combined with a movement for the localization of Buddhism in the West, because Plum Village’s dharma endeavors have been advanced primarily in a cross-cultural context. This study examines three major issues that Plum Village had to deal with in order to take root in Western society. One is the problem of translation, i.e., how to articulate the basic concepts and requirements of Buddhism to contemporary Western people. The second is the issue of organization, i.e., how to accomplish effective mobilization, organize collective activities, and build a sustainable group. The third is the question of practice, i.e., how to design and teach Buddhist deliverance techniques that are adapted to the needs of contemporary individuals. In all three areas, Thích Nhất Hạnh has elaborated creative strategies, thus forming a unique paradigm of contemporary Buddhist transationalization.
- JI Yun 紀贇 (Buddhist College of Singapore 新加坡佛學院): 全球史視野中的近代佛教研究：以太虛法師為例 | Modern Chinese Buddhism in a Global Perspective: A Case Study of Master Taixu
全球史角度對於研究民國時期的佛教非常重要。此一時期為中外佛教交流特別頻繁之際，不僅歐美等西方的宗教隨著帝國列強的勢力強勢進入中國，因此與中國本土的宗教也包括佛教之間有過劇烈的碰撞。在此過程之中，本土宗教會對外來的衝擊作出相應的回應、調整並得以浴火重生；而且，這段時期也是中國本土宗教，尤其是佛教走出國門的重要階段。不僅佛教的高僧大德開始放開眼界，向世界其他文明學習，借鑒其經驗。以太虛法師為首的僧侶也勇敢地踏出傳統佛教的舒適圈，開始在異域之中慘澹經營，讓漢傳佛教正式成為了除傳統漢文佛教文化圈之外的真正世界性宗教的一員。在此過程之中，就在海外留下了大量與漢傳佛教僧團在民國期間傳佈相關的文獻。因此要全面深入地理解民國佛教，就不能離開全球化進程之中受國際影響之下的這個重要角度。
The study of Chinese Buddhism of the Republican period requires a global historical outlook. This period witnessed intensive exchanges between Chinese Buddhism and its international counterparts. Western religions, from regions such as Europe and North America, made their way into China under the sway of imperial powers, leading to significant clashes with indigenous religions, including Buddhism. In response, indigenous religions demonstrated remarkable adaptability and underwent transformative adjustments. Moreover, this period marked an important stage for China’s indigenous religions, particularly Buddhism, as they sought to extend their reach beyond national borders. Eminent Buddhist monastics began broadening their intellectual horizons, engaging with diverse civilizations worldwide and enriching their understanding through the assimilation of varied experiences. Noteworthy among these influential figures is Master Taixu, who boldly stepped out of the comfort zone of traditional Buddhism and dedicated himself to missionary work in uncharted territories. As a result, Chinese Buddhism became a member of the global religious community, transcending the traditional circle of Chinese Buddhist culture. Throughout this process, a substantial body of literature concerning the dissemination of Chinese Buddhism was produced overseas. Therefore, in order to comprehensively and profoundly understand Buddhism in the Republican era, it is essential to consider this crucial perspective shaped by the influences of globalization and international dynamics.
- KAN Cheng-Tsung 闞正宗 (Fo GuangU 佛光大學): 臺灣去殖民地初期對「人間佛教」的認識（1947-1954）| The Perception of “Humanistic Buddhism” of Taiwan in Early De-Colonializing Period (1947-1954)
1945年10月25日，日本戰敗，結束51年的殖民統治，臺灣重回中國版圖。日本殖民統治期間（1895-1945），中臺佛教關係主要分為二期，第一期正常往來時期（1895-1930），兩岸佛教及僧侶往來頻繁，參訪、主法少有限制；第二期管制時期（1931-1945），為因應「九一八事變」及事後扶植偽滿州國的反日情緒，日本殖民統治者，不僅時刻關注臺民的反應，更限制兩岸佛教往來，獲准來臺之僧侶，時刻受到監視，其中以發生於1934年12月17-23日臺南開元寺傳四眾戒會，慧雲法師（林子青，1910-2002）被邀請來臺任戒師，戒畢回閩時被以「間諜罪」逮捕最受矚目。在殖民統治期間，大陸緇素來臺，或臺灣佛門人物赴中多有所在，大陸如太虛、圓瑛、會泉、慧雲、甯達蘊等，臺灣如善慧、本圓、真常、鄭維金等，彼此往來交流，故臺灣緇素對於民國大陸佛教及人物的動向並不陌生，尤對太虛所提倡的「人生（間）佛教」及各項改革多所關注。1945年12月，臺灣重歸版圖後，臺灣佛教隨即配合大陸中國佛教會的運作，1947年4月8日，中佛會於首都南京召開戰後第一次會員大會，臺灣亦派代表參加，於此同時《臺灣佛教》月刊亦於臺北創刊，諸多政令宣達的同時，因太虛之圓寂，「人間佛教」一時成為討論的議題。本文旨在討論戰後初期臺灣佛教對於「人間佛教」的認識與討論，以私淑太虛學生慈航法師圓寂（1954）為斷限，回顧八年間的「人間佛教」相關議題及人物。
This paper explores the understanding and discourse surrounding “Humanistic Buddhism” in early post-war Taiwan, a period leading up to the passing of Monk Cihang, a self-proclaimed disciple of Taixu, in 1954. It provides a review of themes and individuals associated with “Humanistic Buddhism” during this eight-year span. Throughout the Japanese colonial rule over Taiwan (1895-1945), the relationship between Buddhist communities of Mainland China and the island can be divided into two periods. The first period, characterized by normal interactions, lasted from 1895 to 1930. During this time, Buddhist practitioners and monks frequently travelled between both regions, facing minimal restrictions on visits and religious activities. The second period, from 1931 to 1945, witnessed tightened regulations due to anti-Japanese sentiments stemming from the “September 18th Incident” and the establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo. The Japanese colonial authorities closely monitored the reactions of the Taiwanese population and imposed restrictions on cross-strait Buddhist exchanges, and Buddhist monks approved to visit Taiwan were subjected to constant surveillance. Notably, during this period, Master Huiyun (Lin Ziqing, 1910-2002) was arrested after his role as the Preceptor at the Four-Order Precepts Ceremony held at Tainan’s Kaiyuan Monastery in 1934. Upon his return to Fujian, he was detained on charges of being a “spy”. Throughout the colonial rule, Buddhists from each region frequently made visits to the other. Thus, Taiwanese Buddhists remained informed about the developments and trends in mainland Chinese Buddhism, particularly the “Humanistic Buddhism” and reform initiatives advocated by Taixu. With Taiwan’s reintegration in 1945, Taiwanese Buddhism began aligning its efforts with the Buddhist Association of China. In 1947, Taiwan representatives attended the first post-war general assembly held in Nanjing. At the same time, the monthly publication, Taiwan Buddhism, was launched in Taipei. Against the backdrop of various governmental policies, the passing of Master Taixu sparked a surge in discussions on the topic of “Humanistic Buddhism.”
- KONG Yan 孔雁 (Institute of Religious Studies, Shanghai Academy of Social Science 上海社科院宗教研究所): 辦學興寺——法界學院的前世今生與華嚴傳統的現代復興 | Reinventing Tradition: The History and Contemporary Reconstruction of Fajie Seminary along with the Revival of Huayan tradition in Contemporary China
結合文獻記載和口述材料，本文梳理了法界學院的歷史變遷與影響、當代重建與發展。法界學院的重建被視為常熟興福寺發展規劃的重要部分。本文闡述了這樣一座縣級市佛寺，如何充分利用自身的歷史資源和外部力量，通過恢復法界學院、專宗華嚴，在競爭激烈的江南名剎間打造起“華嚴本山”的品牌。與台灣華嚴蓮社的合作不僅有利於彼此正統性的構建，還能獲得佛學院教育方面的經驗和幫助，加強寺院的海外交流，并擴大寺院的影響力。法界學院轟轟烈烈重辦起來的背後，是對歷史的接續，也是對傳統的再發明。在這一過程中，各種力量相互交織、相互惠益，各方秉著不同的動機推動這一建構的發展完善。興辦法界學院，是興福寺招攬僧材、提升知名度、與學界和海外道場建立交往的方法，是寺院財富分配的新途徑，是寺院與地方社會、國家的互動方式。法界學院的興辦深受政府和學界的影響，這是佛教現代化的嘗試。如何這一過程中滿足政府的要求、回應時代的需要，並同時保留佛教本色，這仍然是今後面對的重大課題。
Combining literature records and oral materials, this paper elaborates on the history and influence of Fajie Seminary, its contemporary reconstruction and development. The reconstruction of Fajie Seminary is an important part of the development of Xingfu Monastery. This paper elaborates how this county-level Buddhist temple fully utilizes its historical and external resources to create the brand of “Center Mountain of Huayan Tradition” amidst fierce competition among famous temples in the region south to Yangtse River by restoring Fajie Seminary and following the Huayan teachings in study and practice. The cooperation with Huayen Lotus Association is beneficial to establish orthodoxy, helps Xingfu Monastery gain experience and assistance in Buddhist Monastic Education, strengthen overseas communication and enhance influence. The revival of the Fajie Seminary is not only a continuation of history, but also a reconstruction of tradition. Different forces intertwine with and benefit each other, promoting the development of this construction with different motivations. Reconstructing the Fajie Seminary is a way for Xingfu Temple to attract talented monks, enhance its reputation, and establish connections with academia and overseas Buddhist organizations. It is also a new way to distribute monastic estate and interact with local society, and the state. The reconstruction of the Fajie Seminary is deeply influenced by the government and the academia which is an attempt of modernization for Buddhism. How to meet the requirements of the state, respond to the needs of the times, and preserve the feature of Buddhism at the same time in the process of modernization? It is still a major challenge to be faced in the future.
- Carsten KRAUSE 康易清 (HamburgU 德國漢堡大學): A Comparative Perspective of “Engaged Buddhism” and “Humanistic Buddhism” in Chinese Speaking Discourse: Demarcation, Inspiration, or Integration? | 華語話語體系中“人間佛教”與“參與佛教”的比较研究: 分界、啟發還是融合?
The two modern concepts, “Engaged Buddhism” and “Humanistic Buddhism”, were developed and discussed with and without reference to each other, to a certain degree more in Eastern than Western languages, with regard to their Chinese equivalents. For the development of “new perspectives on Humanistic Buddhism” in the sense of an “Engaged Buddhism”, much depends on the analysis of two research fields that are in this presentation’s focus.
The first research question analyzes how proponents of “Humanistic Buddhism” itself, mainly based in mainland China and Taiwan, as well as Chinese-speaking scholars, were defining and discussing, up to this day, the original Chinese term – and concept – renjian fojiao 人間佛教 and the variety of its English translations, the most prominent of which has become “Humanistic Buddhism”.
As will be shown, Taiwan has a more than 70-year history of discourse, culminating in the 1990s and 2000s. In comparison, mainland China’s related debates began in the 1980s under entirely different circumstances – but increasingly interacting with cross-strait inspiration – and are far from over. In both cases, similar points of reference are a certain legitimization seen in the Republican era (1911-1949), an unprecedented reflection on early Buddhism and at the same time a critical examination of the traditions of Han Chinese Buddhism, all motivating reform and modernization – including a rich spectrum of Buddhist engagement.
Against this background, the second research question deals with the changing understanding(s) of the movement of a so-called “Engaged Buddhism” and its various Chinese translations in mainland China and Taiwan, e.g. rushi fojiao 入世佛教, canyu fojiao 參與佛教, zuoying fojiao 左翼佛教. Its discussion by Chinese-speaking Buddhists and scholars is strongly characterized by comparisons with the renjian fojiao that can lead to demarcation, inspiration, or integration.
Based on a rich pool of sources, the presentation thoroughly examines the conceptual history of “Engaged Buddhism” and “Humanistic Buddhism” in Chinese. Both concepts are analyzed from a comparative perspective concerning mainland China and Taiwan, focusing on their increasing interrelatedness, as seen by Chinese-speaking Buddhists and scholars. This approach helps to show the limits and the enormous potential of “new perspectives on Humanistic Buddhism”.
“Engaged Buddhism”和“人間佛教”這兩個現代概念，在互動和非互動的情況下得到發展和探討。在一定程度上，使用中文術語的東方語言討論多過於使用西方語言。 對於“Engaged Buddhism”視角下的“有關人間佛教的新視野” （“new perspectives on Humanistic Buddhism”），很大程度上取決於對本次論文重點關注的兩個研究領域的分析。
第一個研究問題分析了支持“人間佛教”的佛教界（主要來自中國大陸和台灣地區）以及華語學者迄今為止如何定義和討論原始的中文術語和概念“人間佛教”以及其多種多樣的英譯，其中最突出的是“Humanistic Buddhism”。
在此背景下，第二個研究問題涉及中國大陸和台灣地區對所謂“Engaged Buddhism”運動及其各種中文譯文（如“入世佛教”、“參與佛教”、“左翼佛教”）的理解改變過程。 華語佛教界和學術界的相關討論具有強烈的與“人間佛教”對比的特徵。這樣的討論可能導致兩個概念之間的劃分、相互啓發，抑或是融合。
正如本文將要展示的，台灣擁有超過 70 年的話語歷史，並在 1990年代和 2000 年代達到頂峰。 相比之下，中國大陸的相關辯論始於1980 年代，且辯論的環境完全不同。在近二三十年兩岸靈感的互動日益增多，並且遠未結束。 兩岸相似的參照點有民國時期（1911-1949）的合法化、對早期佛教前所未有的反思、以及有對傳統中國佛教的批判性審視。所有這些都推動了改革和現代化，包括廣泛的佛教的社會參與積極性。
此次論文以豐富的資料為基礎，深入探討了中文“入世佛教”和“人間佛教”的概念史。 關於這兩個概念的分析都是從中國大陸和台灣地區相比較的角度進行的，著重於華語佛教界和學術界認為的兩個概念之間日益增強的關聯性。 期待這種方法有助於展示“Engaged Buddhism”視角下的“有關人間佛教的新視野”（ “new perspectives on Humanistic Buddhism”）的局限性和巨大潛力。
- LI Jingjing 李晶晶 (LeidenU 荷蘭萊登大學): Blossoming Lotuses on the Bodhisattvas’ Path: Meta-ethical Pluralism in Eminent Nun Longlian’s (1909-2006) Engaged Buddhism | 菩薩道上盛開的蓮花: 隆蓮法師入世佛教思想中的元倫理多元論
In the study of Buddhist modernism, Longlian 隆蓮 (1909-2006) has been acknowledged for revitalizing monastic education and discipline (vinaya) (especially for Buddhist women) in modern and contemporary China (Bianci 2022; 2017; 2001). Complementing the findings in social history, I re-read Longlian’s work on morality to investigate her philosophical thought that supports her monastic reform. Specifically, I foreground her accomplishment as a philosopher, in the hope of recognizing the diversity of voices in Buddhist scholasticism. I argue for interpreting her moral theory as meta-ethical pluralism: it is a theory that takes its root in the appreciation of a multiplicity of lived realities for sentient beings who are preoccupied with this-worldly life, or aspiring for other-worldly liberation, or re-engaging with this-worldly reality for guiding others onto the Bodhisattvas’ path. Instead of presuming a unitary and universal standard of moral objectivity, Longlian encourages each person to derive moral values suitable to their lived reality as a preparatory step towards universal awakening. Like many contemporary proponents of meta-ethical pluralism, Longlian is mindful of the issue of moral ambivalence where a plurality of moral values can come into clash. As expounded by Longlian, those on the Bodhisattvas’ path do experience moral ambivalence, but they can still arrive at a judgment on what they should do, through a collaborative effort. In doing so, Longlian not only makes a case for her monastic reform in a secular world, but also manages to respond to the (neo-)Confucian critique of Buddhism as a socially disengaged teaching. More importantly, she envisions humanistic Buddhism as an effort to promote mutual flourishing.
在佛教現代性的研究中，隆蓮法師（1909-2006）一直被視為漢傳佛教（特別是對佛教女性而言）的教育和戒律革新者（Bianci 2022; 2017; 2001）。為了補充和擴展社會生活史的研究成果，我將通過重新閱讀隆蓮法師的道德論著，來探討那些支撐她革新實踐的哲學觀點。就此而言，我特別希望突出她作為哲學家的成就，進而彰顯佛教義理中多樣化的聲音。我主張將她的道德理論解讀為元倫理的多元論。這個理論根源於對眾生不同心境的理解和包容。由於眾生心境不同——有的為了俗世生活而操勞，有的則以超脫出世為願望，也有的以救度他人為念出世又入世——他們便有了相異的道德觀。因此，隆蓮法師並沒有預設一套整齊劃一、放之四海皆准的道德客觀性標準。恰恰相反，她鼓勵生活在不同心境的眾生根據自己的世界觀和人生觀來尋找合適當下的道德價值，並將現在的道德行為作為通向眾生成佛的準備。與不少當代的元倫理多元論者類似，隆蓮法師也意識到了道德的模糊性。這即是說各種自洽的道德價值仍可能在同一場景中產生衝突。在隆蓮法師看來，修行菩薩道的眾生確實會經歷道德的模糊性，但他們仍然可以在共同的努力下做出合理的道德判斷。這樣一來，隆蓮法師不僅為她的革新實踐提供了理論支持，也回應了長期以來儒家對於佛教只能治心不能治世的批評，更將人間佛教視為一種實現生命繁盛的努力。
- LI Silong 李四龍 (PekingU 北京大學): 人間佛教與當代佛學院課程體系 | Humanistic Buddhism and the Curriculum System of Contemporary Buddhist Schools
晚清民初，中國教育實現從傳統書院向新式學校的轉變。中國佛教亦受影響，嘗試以辦佛學院培養僧人。這種新式教育與太虛所主張的「人間佛教」理念，形成新酒與新瓶關係。當代中國的佛學院，整體上是以「八宗兼弘」的理念組織課程。少數想以專攻一宗的方式辦學，罕有成效。現在佛學院的課程體系，還接受了大學通識教育的理念，開設了一系列公共必修課，包括中國傳統文化和宗教學系列的課程。這些公共課常被稱為「文化課」，實際上是「通識課」，容易貫徹「人間佛教」的理念。通識課和佛教專業課之間的關係平衡，是當代佛學院的通病。其背後的原因，並非教育理念的偏頗，而是佛學院生源質量的困境。這種困境折射出當代佛教修行目標和社會功能的定位之難。
In the late Qing and early Republic of China, education in China underwent a transformation from traditional Shuyuan 書院 to modern schools. Chinese Buddhism has also been influenced and attempts to establish Buddhist schools to teach monks. This new mode of Buddhist education and the concept of “Humanistic Buddhism” advocated by Taixu form the relationship between new wine and new bottle. Contemporary Buddhist schools in China are generally organized with the concept of “promoting eight Buddhist sects simultaneously” in their curriculum. A few want to specialize in one Buddhist sect, but it is rarely effective. The current curriculum system of the Buddhist schools has also accepted the concept of liberal education in universities and opened a series of public compulsory courses, including the courses of Chinese traditional culture and Religious studies. These public courses are often called “cultural courses”, which are actually “general courses of liberal education” and are easy to implement the concept of “Humanistic Buddhism”. The balance between general courses and Buddhist professional courses is a common problem in contemporary Buddhist schools. The trouble behind it is not from the biased educational philosophy, but the dilemma of the quality of students in Buddhist schools. This dilemma reflects the difficulty in positioning the goals of contemporary Buddhist practice and the social functions of contemporary Buddhism.
- LIU Yongsi 劉泳斯 (MinzuU of China 中央民族大學): 文化佛教是弘揚人間佛教的有效途徑——以中國台灣地區佛光山教團發展模式為中心 | Cultural Buddhism is An Effective Way to Promote Humanistic Buddhism：A case Study on Foguangshan Order
人間佛教現已成為兩岸三地漢傳佛教界的主流，但人間佛教該具體怎樣搞，佛教界暫時還沒有統一的認識。星雲大師主張「佛教生活化」，重視運用文化和教育的方式弘揚人間佛教，其領導下的佛光山教團在理論與實踐上都取得了舉世矚目的成就，為如何發展人間佛教提供了一個十分成功的案例。本文在回顧現存對星雲大師及佛光山的研究成果的基礎上，論述筆者對佛光山教團的總體認識，進而得出「文化佛教是弘揚人間佛教的有效途徑」的結論。
Humanistic Buddhism has now become the mainstream of the Mahayana Buddhist circles in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. But there is no unified understanding of how to practice it on earth. Venerable Master Xingyun advocated the “Life-oriented Buddhism” and attached importance to the use of culture and education to promote Buddhism. The Foguangshan Order under his leadership has made remarkable achievements in both theory and practice, providing a very successful case for how to develop Buddhism on earth. On the basis of reviewing the existing research results on Venerable Master Xingyun and Foguangshan Order, this article discusses the author’s overall understanding of the Foguangshan Order, and then draws the conclusion that “Cultural Buddhism is an effective way to promote Humanistic Buddhism”.
- LIU Qi 劉琦 (HamburgU 德國漢堡大學): Adaptation to Third-party Payments: Statistical Analysis on Digital Donations made to Donglin Monastery | 對第三方支付的適應：統計分析東林寺的電子捐獻
This paper will explore the adaptations Buddhism made to digital payment methods in the context of the Chinese mainland. To give the audience a relatively comprehensive understanding of the general context in which the new method of donation is applied, it will first introduce the development and particular qualities of the Internet and third-party payment 第三方支付 in the Chinese mainland. Then, it will incorporate statistical analysis to make large-scale claims by analysing 1328 donation records made to Donglin Monastery in Mount Lu 廬山東林寺 with the statistical software SPSS to check whether the digital donation method is linked with the purpose of donations or the amount of money being donated, and to what extent does it substitute traditional donation methods.
本文將探索中國大陸佛教團體對電子支付的應用。爲了讓讀者對産生“電子捐贈“的大環境有相對全面的了解，本文會首先介紹中國大陸的互聯網以及第三方支付發展情況和特殊性。繼而，本文會用統計軟件SPSS分析廬山東林寺的千余條捐款記錄，來檢驗電子捐贈的手段是否與捐贈目的或捐贈金額大小有關，以及它在多大程度上替代了傳統的捐贈方式。
- Irene LOK 駱慧瑛 (HKU 香港大學): Origin, Expansion and Importance of the Guanyin Festivals and Worshipping in Hong Kong | 觀心自在 —— 香港觀音誕探源、發展及傳播
觀世音菩薩是中國佛教中最受歡迎的菩薩，而香港觀音誕則是非物質文化遺產之一。觀音信仰和香港觀音誕都伴隨著香港本身的發展而擴展，源於亞洲，與世界相連，具有獨特的跨文化交流與創作的特徵及其重要性和影響力。然而，香港觀音誕為何及如何演變成現今景象？本文將重點探討香港觀音誕的互鑒與共融，闡釋現象背後的因緣和條件，並以佛教的視角探討如何重新評價觀音菩薩的教育和引導，並在現實生活中相應地計劃和修踐，與其他眾生一起走向更美好的未來。
Guanyin/Avalokiteśvara is the most popular Bodhisattva in Chinese Buddhism. At the same time, Hong Kong Guanyin Festival is an intangible cultural heritage. Guanyin Worshipping and Hong Kong Guanyin Festival have both expanded along with the development of Hong Kong itself. They originated in Asia and are connected to the world, with the unique characteristics of cross-cultural communication and creation as well as importance and influence. However, why and how did the Guanyin Festival in Hong Kong evolve into what it is today? This article will focus on discussing the mutual learning and integration of Guanyin Festival in Hong Kong, explain the causes and conditions behind the phenomenon, and provide a Buddhist perspective to explore how we can re-evaluate Guanyin’s education and guidance and how to plan and practice together in this engulfed world accordingly, and move toward a better future with other sentient beings.
- SAIK Chee Teng 釋光持 (Hsuan ChuangU 玄奘大學): 人間佛教的入世與多元：以馬來西亞「佛教會社區化」為例 | Spirit of worldliness and pluralistic routes of humanistic Buddhism: Take the building of “Buddhist associations with community functions” in Malaysia as an example
新世紀以來馬來西亞居士佛教推動「佛教會社區化」仍屬新興議題，特別是針對人間佛教現代化的多元路線發展具有現實啟發的意義。學界認為對此開拓、深化是後現代語境下傳統佛教會轉型發展前景所採取的新模式。然而，在多元語境下的馬來西亞，地方性居士佛教會如何面向社區化，是否存在潛在性問題與局限。為解開這項迷思，本研究以馬佛青總會推動地方「佛教會社區化」為對象，結合了史學、社會學方法，試圖探討何種原因促使推動「佛教會社區化」，對此又做出了哪些貢獻。本研究發現：一、新一代的佛教會發展不再囿於宗教空間，而是建構多元的公共空間形式運行。然而，促使推動「佛教會社區化」動因，同步也折射出佛教會面對現實困境和局限，適時調適與反轉振興與現代性接軌的特徵。二、佛教會積極參與社會責任，全面打造與社區良好的契機與對話平臺。同步也發揮佛教會於公共空間的價值與意義。三、「佛教會社區化」互鑒互惠的整合功能，最終是否將成為今後佛教發展前景的主流所採取的響應，為本文探討的重點。
In the new century, the building of “Buddhist associations with community functions” promoted by lay Buddhists of Malaysia is still an emerging issue, and is of practical enlightening significance to the development of contemporary pluralistic routes of humanistic Buddhism. According to the academic circle, expanding and deepening the function of traditional Buddhist associations is a new pattern adopted for their transformation and development in a postmodern context. However, in Malaysia in a pluralistic context, are there any potential problems and restrictions as to how local associations of lay Buddhists can be endowed with community functions? To solve this myth, this study takes the building of local “Buddhist associations with community functions” promoted by the General Buddhism Association for the Malaysian Youth as a research target, and adopts historical and sociological methods to explore what factors are promoting the building of “Buddhist associations with community functions” and what contributions have been made. The study has found: I. The development of the new generation of Buddhist associations is no longer restricted to religious space. Instead, they are operated through constituting pluralistic public space. However, the agents for promoting the building of “Buddhist associations with community functions” have simultaneously reflected how Buddhist associations, facing realistic dilemmas and restrictions, are reintegrated with modernity through timely adjustment and reversal. II. Buddhist associations are taking an initiative to assume social responsibilities, and comprehensively create good opportunities and dialogue platforms with communities. Simultaneously, Buddhist associations are displaying values and significance as public space. III. This paper will put emphasis on exploring whether the integrative function of mutual learning and reciprocity of “Buddhist associations with community functions” will become a response to be adopted by the mainstream of the development prospect of Buddhism in the future.
- SAKAIDA Yukiko 坂井田夕起子 (AichiU 日本愛知大學): 閩南佛學院與中日戰爭： 以日本僧侶神田惠雲為例 | Minnan Buddhist Academy and Sino-Japanese War: Taking the Buddhist Monk Kanda Eun as an Example
閩南佛學院於1925年在廈門成立後，有一位日本僧人在此擔任了近二十年的日語教師。 他叫神田惠雲（俗名：末吉），是日本淨土真宗大谷派（東本願寺）的僧侶。當時來到華南的日本僧侶一般不會中文，他們在與台灣偽“總督府”合作調查華南宗教情況並積攢了錢財富後，四、五年左右便會回國。但神田惠雲在日本時就對中國感興趣，於是學習了北京話，來到廈門之後又學習了閩南話。神田在閩南佛學院教日語期間，與廈門佛教徒及太虛的弟子大醒等僧侶都有交往。大醒離開廈門後，一直稱神田為“舊友”。 中日戰爭爆發，神田將廈門的三個佛教團體合而為一，成立了大乘青年佛教會（大乘佛教會）。1941年，大乘佛教會準備讓閩南佛學院重新開學，並邀請大醒當院長。 但是大醒不願與日本合作，他來到廈門後又很快離開了。對神田而言，他很難為戰時廈門的佛教徒做些什麼。 戰敗後，神田希望留在中國但未能如願，在回到日本後不久就病逝了。
In 1925, Nan Putuo Temple established Minnan Buddhist Academy (Minnan foxue yuan), and aimed to establish a new training regimen for young monks. A young Japanese monk taught Japanese there for almost twenty years. His name was Kanda Eun (common name: Suekichi), a priest of the Otani School of Jodo Shinshu (Higashi Honganji). At that time, ordinary Japanese monks who came to South China couldn’t speak Chinese, and cooperated with the Taiwan Governor’s Office to investigate the social customs and religious situation in South China and after accumulated enough money, they would return to Japan in four to five years. However, Kanda had already been interested in China when he was in Japan, so he learned Chinese (Mandarin), and after arriving in Xiamen, he learned Minnan dialect. While teaching Japanese at the Minnan Buddhist Academy, Kanda interacted with Xiamen Buddhists and Taixu’s disciple, Daxing, and other monks. After Daxing left Xiamen, he kept calling Kanda his “old friend”. When the Sino-Japanese War broke out, Kanda united three Buddhist groups in Xiamen into one and established the Mahayana Young Buddhists Association (later the Mahayana Buddhist Association). He was ready to reopen the Minnan Buddhist Academy in 1941 and invited Daxing to be its president. But Daxing, who was unwilling to cooperate with Japan, came to Xiamen and left soon after. For Kanda, it was difficult to do anything for the Buddhists in Xiamen during the war. After the defeat, although he wished to stay in China, he was unable to do so, and died of amoebic dysentery soon after returning to Japan.
- SHAO Jiade 邵佳德 (NankingU 南京大學): 亞洲佛教網絡中人間佛教理念的產生與影響 | The Emergence and Influence of the Idea of Humanistic Buddhism in Asian Buddhist Networks
人間佛教誕生並光大於上世紀前半葉中國的佛教界。過去學界多從中國僧界內人生佛教、人本佛教、人間佛教等理論演化的進程思考其意涵。但考諸歷史，人間佛教的思想與實踐並非是偶然單發的，而是在20世紀整個亞洲佛教網絡的交互影響中逐漸成熟的，這一點未被學界充分重視。本文嘗試通過考察太虛及其一系僧人在上世紀中葉以前對亞洲佛教的考察及認知，以及亞洲佛教國家對人間佛教的理解，來重新反思人間佛教理論和實踐的產生背景。進而希望厘清人間佛教與入世佛教、批判佛教等概念之間的異同，探討人間佛教與當時斯里蘭卡、泰國、越南等地佛教運動關的關聯，思考人間佛教未來的發展方向、路徑與世界意義。
Humanistic Buddhism was invented and flourished in China during the first half of the last century. Most researches have explored its meaning in terms of the process of theoretical evolution of Human Life Buddhism (人生佛教), Human-oriented Buddhism (人本佛教) and Human Realm Buddhism (人間佛教) within the Buddhist community in China. But on historical investigation, the thought and practice of Humanistic Buddhism was not accidentally and singularly developed, it was gradually brought to maturity through the interactive influence of entire Asian Buddhist networks in the 20th century, which has not been sufficiently emphasized by the academics. This paper attempts to rethink the background of theories and practices of Humanistic Buddhism by reviewing Master Taixu and his disciples’ investigations and perceptions of Buddhism in Asia prior to the middle of the last century, as well as the understanding of Humanistic Buddhism in Asian Buddhist countries. The purpose of this paper is to further clarify the similarities and differences between the concepts of Humanistic Buddhism, Engaged Buddhism and Critical Buddhism, to explore the connections between Humanistic Buddhism and the Buddhist activities in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam, with a view to reflecting on the future direction, path, and global relevance of Humanistic Buddhism.
- SHI Tiheng 釋體恆 (Ji’nanU 暨南大學): 人間佛教的另外一個視野——從社會變革角度看佛陀的基本思想 | Another Vision of Humanistic Buddhism: On the Basic Thought of Buddha from the Perspective of Social Reformation
佛陀思想的究極目標是涅槃，而其涅槃思想則建立在一個完整而系統的理論基礎之上。佛陀認為一切生命、環境與事物都由「四大」所構成。由此，佛陀提出，一切有情生命由「六界」或「五蘊」構成。在此基礎之上，佛陀進一步分析生命的成份，提煉出了六根、六塵、六識合起來為「十八界」的概念；從這裡論證出「無我」的觀念。「無我」的理論表述，最為系統的是「十二因緣」哲學觀。「十二因緣」屬於「緣起」思想的內容之一，「緣起」是佛陀所證悟的宇宙萬物生滅的基本法則，「緣起」思想又與印度傳統因果報應的理論密不可分，互為表裡。「緣起」揭示了生命是「苦」的事實，佛陀用以闡述生命是「苦」以及解決「苦」這個問題的理論與方法是「四諦」。而達到「四諦」中涅槃寂滅的「道諦」的方法，佛陀給予的最基本方法是「八正道」。佛陀的涅槃解脫思想，是不落二邊的中道正觀，是無所執著的「空性」特徵，是從心下手的「心解脫」。「中道」、「空性」、「心解脫」三者是佛陀涅槃思想的根本特性。可以說，佛陀的涅槃解脫思想，既是一場宗教改革，也是一場無比巨大的、影響深遠的、非暴力的、不流血的「社會改革運動」。他所開創的是一種人人自覺、人人自由的全新「生活方式」與「人生道路」，借由每個個體的自由達至全體有情生命的自由。這種「生活方式」與「人生道路」背後的哲學觀也是「實用哲學」，一切以「實踐」為目的。總之，佛陀的這個「社會運動」步驟就是：（1）為每一個體都給出達到自由靈魂與自由境界的方法；（2）由每一個體的徹底解放，達到整體社會面貌與人類生存環境的改變；（3）由內心、外境的改變，從而達至全體人類命運的改變。
The ultimate goal of Buddha’s thought is nirvāṇa (涅槃), which is based on a complete and systematic theoretical foundation. Buddha believed that all life, environment, and things are composed of the catvāri mahā-bhūtāni (四大), and correspondingly all sentient beings are composed of the ṣaḍ-dhātavaḥ (六界) or pañca-skandha (五蘊). Buddha also analyzed the components of life and extracted the concept of the stādaśa-dhātavah (十八界) of the Six Indriyas (六根), six artha (六塵), and six ṣaḍvijn-āna (六識), which prove the concept of no-self (anātman 無我). The most systematic theoretical investigation of selflessness is the philosophy of Twelve nidānas (十二因緣). The pratītya-samutpāda (緣起), which is closely related to the traditional Indian theory of karma, is the fundamental principle of the birth and death of all things in the universe that Buddha has realized. The pratītya-samutpāda reveals the fact that life is duḥkha (苦), and the theory, as well as the method used by Buddha to explain and solve duḥkha, is called catvaryārya-satyāni (四聖諦). Moreover, the most basic method provided by the Buddha to achieve mārga-satya (道諦), namely, nirvāṇa, is called āryāṣṭāñgika-mārga (八正道). Additionally, madhyamā-pratipad (中道), śūnyatā (空性), and citta-vimukti (心解脱) could be regarded as the fundamental characteristics of Buddha’s nirvāṇa thought. Buddha’s thought of nirvāṇa is not only a religious reformation but also an extremely huge, far-reaching, nonviolent and bloodless “social reform movement.” He created a new “way of life” and “path of life” through which every individual would be aware and liberated, thus gradually achieving the freedom of all sentient beings. I argue that the philosophy behind this “way of life” and “path of life” is a “practical philosophy,” aiming at “practice” overall. This article will also explain the steps of the Buddha’s “social movement” as (1) providing each individual with a method to achieve a free soul and a state of freedom; (2) the complete liberation of each individual to achieve a change in the overall social appearance and human living environment; (3) through changes in the inner and outer worlds, it leads to a change in the fate of all humanity.
- Barend TER HAAR 田海 (HamburgU 德國漢堡大學): Studying Non-clerical Approaches to Buddhist Ideals in the Late Imperial Period | 對帝國晚期佛教理想的非教職研究方法
There is a long tradition of studying late imperial period religious culture in terms of decline. In the study of Buddhism, 20th century revival movements (Taixu, Foguangshan etc.) constructed the recent past for instance as a long period of decline in order to further their own reform movements by claiming that they were merely recovering a better past, rather than creating something new. This approach is problematic for a host of reasons, including the fact that local religious life was flourishing and when left alone (more or less so in Hong Kong and Taiwan until recently) was quite capable of surviving Civil war, foreign imperialism and colonialism, and political campaigns. It also ignores the enormous vitality of non-clerical traditions which may have exceded the parameters of what monastics felt that was allowed as interpretation, but was creative nonetheless. A narrow framework of studying these interpretations within exclusively Buddhist or Daoist parameters (after all, who decides what is the correct interpretation) is bound to deride these changes as decline or misinterpretation, but as a historian of religious culture I propose looking at these as innovation and testimony to the power of religious ideals. In this paper I will focus on beliefs around Amitabha and the Pure Land, as well as the possibility of maintaining a Buddhist lifestyle in society at large rather than a monastery.
從衰落的角度研究帝國晚期宗教文化有一個長期的傳統。在佛教研究中，二十世紀的復興運動（例如，太虛，佛光山）聲稱他們只是在恢復更好的過去而非創造新的東西，將晚近時期構築為長期的衰落，以推進它們的改革運動。眾多的理由都說明這種方法是有問題的，例如，地方本土的宗教生活是繁榮的，而且如果不受干擾（香港和台灣差不多是此種情況），有能力在內戰、外來帝國主義和殖民主義以及政治運動中存活下來。這種方法也忽視了非教職傳統的巨大活力。非教職傳統可能越過了僧人們認為許可的解釋範圍，但是它們是富有創造性的。僅在佛教或道教範圍內研究這些這些宗教闡釋，這樣一個狹隘的框架勢必會嘲弄這些變化，將其視為衰落或曲解。但是，作為研究宗教文化的歷史學家，我建議將這些宗教闡釋視為創新以及宗教理想的力量的證明。在本文中，我將聚焦於圍繞阿彌陀佛和淨土的信仰，以及在社會中而非寺廟裡維持佛教生活方式的可能性。
- WANG Liting 王麗婷 (UCLA 美國加州大學洛杉磯分校): Clouds and Water: Buddhist Monastics’ Poetic Practices beyond the Non-Establishment of Words | 雲水禪心-不立文字之外的詩歌修行
Ever since the Han Dynasty Sixth B.C.E, Buddhism has rapidly spread around China and influenced many aspects of Chinese cultural and literary life. In my paper, I discussed the intricate relationship of Chan Buddhism’s emphasis on “non-establishment of words and point directly to true nature” and the expression of Buddhism through delicate uses of language in one of the most refined literary traditions, namely poetry. The value of language injected a controversial interplay between wordless Chan schools of Buddhism and word-centric poems, whereas the wordless Chan schools believed in the vanity of language in front of the true nature, yet the practices of poetry depend heavily on the aesthetics and delicacy of language and diction. The inter-relations and dialogues between literature and religion represented in Chinese Chan poetry created space for religious enlightenment of Buddhism practices passed down in poetic forms, disclosed ambitious hopes of determined practitioners, and alluded to the other circulating and well-known literary works. Chan poetry has established a refreshing and unique taste of poetic aesthetics and embraced varieties of sense and sensibility. In addition, the dynamic engagement between Buddhist practitioners and literati is collected and preserved in the traces of Chan poetry. I have closely analyzed three poems ranging from Tang dynasty to Republican era to interpret the sense of Chan and the poet’s identity and the refreshing perspective they provided in their poems. Each poem really revolutionized typical views about Buddhist monks community and leaves unique traces about the interpretation of the Way.
自公元前六年的漢代以來，佛教在中國迅速傳播，影響了中國文化和文學生活的方方面面。 在我的論文中，我討論了禪宗強調“不立文字，直指人心”與佛教在最精緻的文學傳統之一即詩歌中通過精巧的語言表達之間的錯綜複雜的關係。 語言的價值在佛教禪宗和以文字為中心的詩歌之間注入了一個有爭議的相互作用，禪宗相信語言在真實本性面前的虛榮，而詩歌的實踐在很大程度上取決於審美和精緻 的語言和措辭。 中國禪詩所表現的文學與宗教之間的相互關係和對話，為以詩歌形式流傳的佛教修行創造了宗教啟蒙空間，揭示了堅定修行者的雄心壯志，並暗示了其他流傳和知名的文學作品。 禪詩確立了清新獨特的詩學審美情趣，包容多變的感性。 此外，佛教修行者與文人之間的動態接觸被收集並保存在禪詩的痕跡中。 我仔細分析了三首從唐代到民國時期的詩歌，以解讀禪意和詩人的身份，以及他們在詩歌中提供的令人耳目一新的視角。 每首詩都真正顛覆了對佛教僧侶群體的典型看法，並留下了獨特的解釋道的痕跡。
- Eugene WANG 汪悅進 (Harvard CAMLab 美國哈佛大學): Art, Science, and Buddhism: What is left unsaid? | 藝術、科技、與佛教：意猶未盡之處？
Where do art, science, and Buddhism converge? The question usually takes us to familiar grounds: mindfulness, consciousness, intersubjectivity, flux, etc. Is there anything flying under our radar screen that ranges beyond these familiar topoi? Force field is certainly one of those blindspots. The notion conveniently connects modern physics to the time-honored Chinese concepts of “force” (qi) and “field” (chang). With its currency in physics, social psychology, science fiction, and art, the term points to, among other things, an individual or group’s psychological environment with its evolving dynamics, varying intensities, and experiential qualities. Technology-inflected modern art that treats forms as forces in an abstract domain further highlights the relevance of the concept. Add Buddhist notions of “place of practice” (Ch. daochang; Skt. bodhimaṇḍa) to the mix, we have a complicated but intriguing case. The nonlocality of the performance space implied by both Buddhist place of practice (daochang) and site of theatrical performance (juchang) aligns well with the nonlocality of space increasingly gaining currency in modern physics. In light of this, we might rethink a baseline question long taken for granted: where exactly does art take place? In this day and age of virtual reality and media technology, the question becomes all the more pressing and pertinent.
藝術、科技、與佛教，領域不同，何處交匯？此類探討不乏，常常陷入老生常談，如冥想修煉、意識、互涉主體（無我）、無常，等等。除此之外，還有什麽言意未盡之處？“氣場”或許是被忽略的盲點之一。“氣場”的觀念遠接傳統語境中的“氣”與“場”，近接現代物理中的場域論等。這個概念在物理學、社會心理學、科幻、藝術等諸多領域中頗占有一席之地。如在社會心理學中，這個概念可意指個體或群體的心理空間及其流變軌跡，以及特定場合的體驗感等。現代藝術用科技手段演示抽象場域或負空間的力場，凸顯了這一概念在現當代認知視野中的顯赫地位。在這個概念上叠加佛教文化中的“道場”，這事就變得愈加撲朔迷離，同時又柳暗花明又一村,倒也增加了幾分耐人尋味的曲徑通幽之處。佛教有道場；傳統表演有戲場；現代物理有不受物理空間所囿的能量場。這些場域有異曲同工之妙，都不被固定的經典物理空間鎖定。順此思路，我們不妨重新思考叩問一向習以爲常的問題：藝術，尤其是佛教藝術所要表現的場所究竟何在？在虛擬現實和多媒技術大行其道的當下，這個問題變得尤其應景和迫切。
- WANG Song 王頌 (PekingU 北京大學): 新文化運動視域下的《海潮音》與人間佛教 | Haichao Yin and Engaged Buddhism from the perspective of New Culture Movement
新文化運動是「中國的文藝復興」（胡適語），它在現代語境下「發現」人，無論是個體的具有獨立的尊嚴和權利的人，還是群體的構建現實社會的人。前者指向民主與自由，後者構建民族與國家，「再造文明」。《海潮音》誕生於新文化運動，絕非偶然。報刊作為一種新型的知識生產與傳播平台，從「器」的層面推動了「人的發現」。圍繞報刊的「人」，是作者和讀者群體，他們通過寫作與閱讀的相互交融過程不斷實現視角的切換與身份的轉換。就《海潮音》而言，作者群體以「新僧」為核心，讀者群體則是「現代人」，而「新僧」同時又是「現代人」，只有「現代人」才有可能成為「新僧」。「人間佛教」是貫穿二者的金線，「發揚大乘佛法真義，應導現代人心正思」既是《海潮音》的辦刊宗旨，同時也是「人間佛教」思想的精髓。
The New Culture Movement, called by Dr. Hu Shi the “Chinese Renaissance”, is the “discovery of Man” in the modern context, whether they are individuals with independent dignity and rights, or groups of people who build various social organizations. The former points to democracy and freedom, while the latter refers to the nations, states and the “reconstruction of civilization.” It is no accident that the journal Haichao Yin (Sea Tide Sound) was born in the New Culture Movement. As a new type of platform for the production and dissemination of knowledge, modern publishing provides the material basis to promote the “discovery of Man”. The “people” around newspapers and periodicals are the writers and readers, who constantly realize the change of perspective and identity through the mutual blending process of writing and reading. As far as Haichao Yin is concerned, the author group was Xinseng (modern monk) as the core, while the reader group was Xinren (modern man). On the other hand, all Xinseng belong to Xinren, at the same time, only Xinren can become Xinseng. Engaged Buddhism was the golden thread that runs through the two. “Carrying forward the true meaning of Mahayana Buddhism and guiding modern peoples’ thought” (Master Taixu’s language) is not only the purpose of Haichao Yin, but also the essence of Engaged Buddhism.
- Wei WU 吳薇 (EmoryU 美國埃默里大學): From Monks to Educators: Buddhist Charitable Activities on Education in Early Twentieth Century Beijing | 從僧侶到教育家：二十世紀初北京的佛教慈善教育活動
This paper aims to explore the charitable activities of the Chinese Buddhists in Beijing in the first decades of the twentieth century, with a focus on their efforts to build schools and promote education. Specifically, the paper will examine the endeavors led by the monk Zongyue 宗月 (1880—1941), who spearheaded various Buddhist charitable activities in Beijing, including the building of several ordinary schools 平民學校 from the 1920s to the 1930s. In addition, Zongyue established a library and a Buddhist newspaper Fobao Xunkan 佛寶旬刊 to promote ideas about reformulating Buddhism. Inspired by Zongyue’s example, as well as under pressure from the government during the anti-superstition campaigns of the late 1920s, many other temples in Beijing began to build schools to offer education to students. The paper will investigate the interactions between Buddhism, education, and government, and discuss Buddhism’s involvement in the emergence of urban modernity. By examining Zongyue’s movement and the role of Chinese Buddhists in promoting education and social change, this paper seeks to shed light on the broader impact of Buddhism on Chinese society in the early twentieth century.
本文旨在探討二十世紀初的幾十年間北京佛教徒所進行的慈善活動，關注於他們興辦學校和促進教育的努力。 具體來說，本文將考察僧人宗月（1880-1941）。宗月在北京率先開展了多種佛教慈善活動，包括從 1920 年代到 1930 年代創建了幾所平民學校。 此外，宗月還創立了圖書館並開辦了一份佛教報刊《佛寶旬刊》，用以宣傳佛教的思想。 在 1920 年代末反迷信運動期間的壓力之下，受到宗月榜樣的啓發，北京的許多寺廟開始設立學校為學生提供教育。本文將調查佛教、教育和政策之間的相互作用，並討論佛教在城市現代性出現中的作用。 通過考察宗月和中國佛教徒在促進教育和社會變革方面的作用，本文試圖闡明佛教在二十世紀初對中國社會產生的廣泛影響。
- XING Kong 行空 (Buddhist Academy of China 中國佛學院): 周叔迦的佛教教育思想——以中國佛學院為中心 | Zhou Shujia’s Thought of Buddhist Education: Centering around the Buddhist Academy of China
作為一位虔誠的佛教信仰者與佛學研究者，周叔迦先生的治學經歷了二十世紀中國學界的啟蒙，再加上得天獨厚的家學淵源，成就了其成為一代佛學大家。先生治學嚴謹，勤奮著述。目前，搜集到的文字資料達三百余萬。先生注重教育，培養人才，孜孜不倦。早期在中國大學、中法大學、北京大學、清華大學、和輔仁大學等高校任教，講授佛教歷史、唯識研究、因明學表解、三論宗及佛經研究方法等各類課程。曾于北平瑞應寺創辦中國佛教學院，培養佛教僧才。新中國成立後，發起中國佛教協會及創辦中國佛學院，先生是核心人物之一。擔任中國佛學院副院長及教務長，長期主持學院工作。將畢生數萬卷藏書捐贈給佛學院，可見先生對佛教信仰及佛教教育的忠實之心。
As a devout Buddhist believer and researcher, Zhou Shujia’s academic career has undergone the enlightenment of the 20th century Chinese academic community, coupled with his unique family background, which has made him a great master of Buddhism for a generation. He was rigorous in his academic pursuits and diligent in writing. At present, more than three million characters of written materials by him have been collected. On the other hand, he paid attention to education, cultivating talents, and working tirelessly. In his early years, he taught at universities such as China University, Sino-French University, Peking University, Tsinghua University, and Fu-jen University, teaching various courses such as Buddhist history, Yogacara, Hetuvidya, Sanlun, and Buddhist study methodologies. Formerly he established the Zhongguo Fojiao xueyuan 中國佛教學院 at Ruiying Temple 瑞應寺 in Beiping (current Beijing), cultivating Buddhist monks. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, he was a major force behind the initiation of the Buddhist Association of China and establishment of the Buddhist Academy of China. He served as the Vice Principal for Academic Affairs of the Buddhist Academy of China, and was in charge of the academy’s work for a long time. Donating tens of thousands of volumes of his lifetime’s collection of books to the Buddhist Academy shows the teacher’s loyalty to Buddhist faith and education.
- Jakub ZAMORSKI 孫亞柏 (JagiellonianU 波蘭雅蓋隆隆大學): “Socially Engaged” Interpretations of Pure Land Buddhism: A Phenomenon of East Asian Modernity | 作爲東亞現代性現象的「入世」淨土詮釋
In the 20th century the idea of a Pure Land began to be invoked in a new context – namely, as a canonical justification for the ideal of socially engaged Buddhist practice. The arguably best known example of this tendency is the project of constructing a “Pure Land in the Human realm” proposed by the Chinese monk Taixu 太虛in the 1920s and carried forward by the mostly Taiwan-based movement of “Humanistic Buddhism”. However, as illustrated by the growing body of secondary scholarship, “this-worldly” interpretation of the Pure Land teachings was not unique to this particular lineage. Similar ideas were considered by at least several Taixu’s contemporaries, not only in Republican China, but also, for example, in Taishō-period Japan and in Taiwan under Japanese colonial rule. In my talk I would like to discuss a few questions that may be raised through comparing those “socially” orientated readings of the Pure Land with one another. Which common facets of East Asian Pure Land tradition did those authors reject, modify or emphasize in order to relate it to the problems of “this-worldly” secular society? How did they approach the traditional distinction between “Mind-only” and “Western” Pure Land? To what extent did they rely on Western concepts and Westernized vocabulary to articulate their own stance? In what sense are their interpretations of the Pure Land “modern”?
在20世紀中「淨土」這一概念開始在一個新的背景之下出現，被用來結合佛教修行和社會運動（社會改造）這兩種理想。代表這一趨向的最著名範例很可能是中國僧人太虛在1920年代所提出的構建「人間淨土 」計劃，以及隨後在臺灣所發展的 「人間淨土」思想。然而，正如越來越多相關研究所顯示的那樣，以「社會」爲導向的淨土詮釋並不侷限於這一個特定的思想脈絡。不僅在民國時期的中國，在大正時期的日本和日本殖民統治下的臺灣，也都有與太虛同時代的幾名人物提出過類似的詮釋。本演講將試圖對他們的詮釋進行對比，藉此提出幾個問題：面對共同的東亞淨土佛教傳統，那些作者拒絕、修改或強調了該傳統的哪些方面，以便將淨土與世俗社會聯繫起來？他們是如何處理 「唯心淨土 」和 「西方淨土 」的兩種傳統概念？他們在多大程度上依靠西方化的詞彙來闡述自己的立場？他們對淨土的解讀在什麼意義上代表所謂的現代化詮釋?
- ZHANG Wenliang 張文良 (RenminU of China 中國人民大學): 「實存協同」說與人間佛教的生命論 | Hajime Tanabe’s “Existential Communion” and the Theory of Life in the Humanistic Buddhism
京都學派的代表性哲學家之一田邊元（1885-1962）在晚年對死亡的哲學意義進行思考，撰寫了「生的存在學還是死的辯證法」等系列論文，提出生者與死者之間的「實存協同」問題，即死者不是變為絕對的虛無，而是與生者處於互相關聯之中，而這種相互關聯的基礎就是愛。這種「實存協同」不限於個體之間的關係，而是一種向無限多的他者開放的關係。田邊元依據禪宗的超越生死的禪悟體驗以及大乘菩薩道的他者觀來論證「實存協同」不是一種觀念論，而是一種與佛教修行相關的實踐論。田邊元的「實存協同」說對我們思考人間佛教的生命論有一定啓發，特別是對我們重新思考包括超度法會在內的佛教喪葬儀式的意義有參考價。
One of the representative philosophers of the Kyoto School, Hajime Tanabe (1885-1962) contemplated the philosophical significance of death in his later years and wrote a series of papers, including “Ontology of Life or Dialectic of Death?”, in which he proposed the concept of “Existential Communion” between the living and the deceased. The idea of “Existential Communion” suggests that the deceased do not simply vanish into absolute nothingness but would remain correlated with the living, and the foundation of this correlation is love. “Existential Communion” extends beyond the correlation between individuals. It is a relationship that is open to an infinite number of others. Based on the cases found in the Chan School of achieving enlightenment that transcends the boundary of life and death through meditation, as well as how the idea of “others” is perceived in the Mahayanist Bodhisattva norm, Hajime Tanabe argued that the “Existential Communion” is not merely a theory that stays on the conceptual level, but a practical theory associated with Buddhist practice. Hajime Tanabe’s theory of “Existential Communion” inspires us to reflect on the theory of life in Humanistic Buddhism, particularly in reconsidering the significance of Buddhist funeral rites, including the memorial services that appease the deceased.
- ZHANG Xuesong 張雪松 (RenminU of China 中國人民大學): 當代佛教面臨的經濟倫理新問題及其探討—以果卓法師《禪修問答錄》及其《續本》為例 | The New Economic and Ethical Problems Faced by Contemporary Buddhism: Discussions Based on the Q&A on Meditation and Its Continuation by Venerable Guozhuo
2017年9月和2018年5月，筆者兩次在安徽九華山見到果卓法師，特別是2017年9月同果卓法師製作《兩個和尚鏘鏘鏘》節目期間，進行了數次較為深入的訪談，並走訪了果卓法師所住持的寺廟「上禪堂」。本文即以同安徽九華山果卓法師的訪談，及其著作《禪修問答錄》及其《續本》為個案，探討當代佛教徒面對的經濟倫理問題，以及經濟社會生活中出現的各類新鮮事物對傳統佛教的挑戰及應對。本文認為從傳統佛教思想教義的現代詮釋與應用方面來看，佛教徒和社會之間的張力是比較小的，但要將人間佛教真正落在實處，許多宗教倫理等方面的議題必須做出現實的回應，《禪修問答錄》及其《續本》這類面對信徒的佛教實用文獻是一種積極的嘗試。
On the basis of the interviews with Venerable Guozhuo in September 2017 and May 2018 at Mount Jiuhua, Anhui Province, together with his Q&A on Meditation and its Continuation, this article first discusses the new economic and ethical problems faced by Contemporary Buddhism, further the challenges and responses of all kinds of new things in economic and social life to traditional Buddhism. The author believes that from the perspective of the modern interpretation and application of traditional Buddhist thought and doctrines, the tension between Buddhists and society is relatively small, but in order to get Humanistic Buddhism into practice, many religious ethics and other issues must respond realistically. Q&A on Meditation and its Continuation are Buddhist practical literature facing to believers. And this kind of literature is a positive attempt to deal with the new challenges in contemporary society.
- ZHANG Jia 張佳 (SoutheastU 東南大學): 人間與民間：重估佛化新青年會的世界意識與歷史意義 | Between the Humanistic Buddhism and the Folk Belief: Reevaluation of the World-wide Awareness and Historical Significance of the Buddhist New Youth Association
佛化新青年會的開創既有對基督教青年會的模仿和競爭，又是對新青年運動的效仿與佛化。佛化新青年們以研究佛學普化人類、內而改造中國、外而改造世界的觀念和行動，一度獲得包括高僧、傳教士和官紳商學各界名流的積極支持，在普通民眾中也頗具影響。然而，在處理僧俗關係、佛教人間化和民間佛教關係等問題上，佛化新青年會的一些做法過於偏激。由此，佛化新青年們改造世界的計劃也逐漸失去民眾和主流僧界的重要支持而迅速破滅。在文化全球化的浪潮裹挾中，佛化新青年會不僅是佛教青年為佛教現代化轉型做出的自主探索，還是中國新青年們借佛教文化對世界文明的嶄新想象。佛化新青年會對新佛教和新世界的激進宣傳，則為我們探索近代佛教僧俗關係的維繫，以及現代社會精英和民眾之間的衝突與調適留下經驗與啓示。
During the republic time of cultural globalization, the establishment of the Buddhist New Youth Association is the independent exploration of the modernization of Chinese Buddhism by some Buddhist youth. It is also the Buddhist imagination for world civilization of these Chinese new youth. Through imitation, Buddhist transformation of and even competition with both the New Youth Movement and the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), the Buddhist New Youth Association’s concepts and actions for improving life by researching into Buddhist thoughts and popularizing Buddhist culture in China and the world, has gained many celebrities and young students’ support. Yet when dealing with issues such as the relationship between monks and the laities, between Humanist Buddhism and folk belief, the radical propagation of their hope and its deviation from Buddhist tradition for New Buddhism and new World quickly lost the support. The successful experience or unsuccessful lesson of the Buddhist New Youth Association, however, could benefit us in exploring the relationship between Buddhist monks and laities, as well as the conflicts and adjustments between elites and the masses in modern Chinese society.
- ZHEN Guan 振冠 (International Center of Chinese Buddhist Culture and Education 美國漢傳佛教國際文教中心 [美國加州]): 太虛“佛教宗教師”理念與當代北美佛教宗教師職業窺探 | Exploration of Taixu’s Concept of “Buddhist Minister” to the Formation and Profession of Buddhist Chaplaincy in the US
20世紀30年代初太虛大師提出了“佛教宗教師”理念，以期為彼時式微的佛教提供與時俱進的改革方案，增進佛教社會認知度，促使佛學成為一門經世顯學。大師的佛教宗教師理念，由三級制、四學級、三職級的出世佛教教育與入世社會實踐構成，體現了一種“新佛學”的社會實際性應用意義。21世紀初，普林斯頓大學神學院奧斯默教授提出了“四性”實踐神學範式，回應基督教會事工在世俗社會的延伸意義。四性實踐神學對當代北美佛教宗教師職業的發展，產生了重要的影響。本文分析了太虛大師三級制、四學級、三職級佛教宗教師理念及其建設構想，探討了奧斯默教授四性實踐神學對當代北美佛教宗教師職業發展的影響，展望了太虛大師應用佛學理念，對建構當代佛教宗教師職業體繫的啟發意義。
In the early 20th century, Master Taixu proposed the concept of “Buddhist Minister” as to provide specific plans for reforming Buddhism in China—enhancing its social recognition and engagement. In that concept, qualifications for becoming a Buddhist minister in accordance with three stages requires the completion of “Four Levels of Learning” and “Three Levels of Practicing” which indicate specific paradigms of “Neo-Buddhology,” i.e., applied Buddhology in practice. In the early 21st century, Professor Richard Osmer from the School of Divinity at Princeton University proposed the practical theological concepts of descriptive-empirical, interpretive, normative and pragmatic paradigms in response to the extension of Christian church ministry in secular formation. Under these four practical theological paradigms, the formation and profession of Buddhist chaplaincy in the US were developed. This article discusses Master Taixu’s concepts of Buddhist Minister, analyzes the influence of Professor Osmer’s practical theological paradigms in the professional formation and development of Buddhist chaplaincy, and examines the meaning of potential establishment of Buddhist chaplaincy in the US and beyond in accordance with Master Taixu’s applied Buddhological paradigms.
